Disputed Statements

Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Historical Figures

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Lifespan or Floruit Start Year

Currently States 815

The source marks this year circa, its own approximate estimate rather than a fixed date.

Source The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs (eds.) tier 1

Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Historical Figures

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Lifespan or Floruit End Year

Currently States 875

The source marks this year circa, its own approximate estimate rather than a fixed date.

Source The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs (eds.) tier 1

Musnad al-Imam Zayd, Scriptures & Texts

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Attributed Author / Compiler

Currently States Attributed to Zayd ibn Ali, great-grandson of Ali (traditional)

The Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, Brill, 2005, documents that the Musnad al-Imam Zayd's traditional ascription to Zayd ibn Ali, who died in 740 CE and is the eponym of Zaydi Shia Islam, and its dating remain debated among scholars. That is typical of early hadith and legal collections attributed to founding figures: the surviving manuscript tradition shows evidence of later transmission and editorial layering, so the encyclopedia's contributors weigh internal textual evidence, style, legal content and chains of transmission, against the traditional ascription using the source-critical methods standard to hadith scholarship, without a contemporary autograph that could settle the question directly. Its own text states this plainly, that authorship and dating remain debated, and the encyclopedia entry is the reference that debate is drawn from.

Source The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs (eds.) tier 1

Musnad al-Imam Zayd, Scriptures & Texts

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Attributed Author / Compiler

Currently States Authorship and dating remain debated among scholars (critical)

The Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, Brill, 2005, documents that the Musnad al-Imam Zayd's traditional ascription to Zayd ibn Ali, who died in 740 CE and is the eponym of Zaydi Shia Islam, and its dating remain debated among scholars. That is typical of early hadith and legal collections attributed to founding figures: the surviving manuscript tradition shows evidence of later transmission and editorial layering, so the encyclopedia's contributors weigh internal textual evidence, style, legal content and chains of transmission, against the traditional ascription using the source-critical methods standard to hadith scholarship, without a contemporary autograph that could settle the question directly. Its own text states this plainly, that authorship and dating remain debated, and the encyclopedia entry is the reference that debate is drawn from.

Source The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs (eds.) tier 1

Muspelheim, Realms

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Origin of the Name

Currently States The element Múspell is of disputed origin, most often connected to the Old High German muspilli, itself obscure in sense.

The Prose Edda supplies no etymology for the name, and scholars have proposed several derivations for Old High German muspilli without reaching agreement, including glosses of world's end and destroyer of the world. The connection to Old Norse Muspell is generally accepted; the deeper root is not.

Source Dictionary of Northern Mythology, Rudolf Simek, translated by Angela Hall tier 1

Mwari, Deities

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Gender

Currently States Beyond gender

Standard Shona usage does not assign Mwari a grammatical or theological gender, and the praise names used in worship are themselves ungendered. Michael Bourdillon's The Shona Peoples: An Ethnography of the Contemporary Shona, with Special Reference to their Religion (1987), based on his own fieldwork among Shona communities, records that some accounts of the Matonjeni cult nonetheless describe Mwari as having both male and female aspects, and that the shrine's own officers include a woman whose role is to receive Mwari's voice and relay it to petitioners, a living office that sits ambiguously between the deity's identity and its human intermediary. Bourdillon's method is ethnographic fieldwork conducted directly with Shona religious specialists rather than reconstruction from a written scripture, since Mwari worship is an oral and ritual tradition without a canonical text that could fix the deity's gender by definition. Because the ethnographic record itself contains both genderless and dual-gendered accounts drawn from within the same living tradition, no settled position exists.

Source The Shona Peoples: An Ethnography of the Contemporary Shona, with Special Reference to their Religion, Michael F. C. Bourdillon tier 1

Mwari, Deities

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Point in Dispute

Currently States Whether the Mwari cult and the mhondoro mediums coordinated the risings of 1896 to 1897 across a wide area is one of the long-running arguments of Zimbabwean historiography.

Terence Ranger's Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-97: A Study in African Resistance (1967) argued, from colonial administrative and missionary records of the rising against British settlement, that the Mwari religious authorities, the Matonjeni shrine network, supplied the organisation a scattered Shona and Ndebele population could not otherwise have mustered across such distance. David Beach contested the thesis in detail in later work, examining the same colonial record more closely and holding that the evidence for centrally coordinated religious direction is thin, and that later twentieth-century nationalist movements, which drew on the 1896-97 rising as a founding precedent, had read their own organisational assumptions backwards onto it. Ranger himself substantially revised his original position in subsequent publications after reviewing Beach's critique and further evidence. The method throughout is documentary historical argument from the same body of colonial-era sources, and because Ranger's own revision did not simply concede Beach's case, both readings remain in circulation among historians of the rising rather than one having replaced the other.

Source Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-97: A Study in African Resistance, Terence O. Ranger tier 2

Mwari, Deities

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Origin Account

Currently States Mwari's Matonjeni shrine complex in the Matobo Hills became historically significant beyond religious practice in 1896, when colonial authorities linked the shrine's mediums to the coordination of the First Chimurenga uprising against British South Africa Company rule.

Historians have long debated how directly the Mwari cult and its mediums organized the 1896 to 1897 uprising. Terence Ranger's influential account credited the cult with providing ideological coordination across Ndebele and Shona insurgents, while later historians, David Beach among them, argued the evidence for centralized religious direction was thinner than Ranger claimed and that local leadership mattered more than shrine authority. This is a question of documented political history, not a description of the shrine's living ritual practice.

Source Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-97: A Study in African Resistance, Terence O. Ranger tier 2

Myanmar, Countries

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Legal Status

Currently States The 1982 Citizenship Law excludes the Rohingya from recognized national ethnic groups, rendering most stateless; the United Nations has characterized 2017 military operations against the Rohingya as bearing genocidal intent, a case now before the International Court of Justice.

Myanmar's 1982 Citizenship Law excludes the Rohingya, a Muslim minority concentrated in Rakhine State, from the list of recognised national ethnic groups eligible for full citizenship, rendering most Rohingya effectively stateless within the country where the great majority have lived for generations. The United Nations has characterised the Myanmar military's 2017 operations against the Rohingya, which killed thousands and drove roughly seven hundred thousand people into Bangladesh, as bearing genocidal intent, a characterisation now the subject of a case before the International Court of Justice brought by the Gambia on behalf of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Myanmar's government disputes the genocide characterisation, framing the 2017 operations as a legitimate security response to attacks by a Rohingya militant group rather than as an intentional campaign against the Rohingya as such. The dispute is over legal intent and characterisation under the Genocide Convention, not over whether the operations and mass displacement occurred, and it will be settled, to the extent international law can settle it, by the Court's eventual ruling, still pending as of the State Department's report.

Source International Religious Freedom Report, United States Department of State, Office of International Religious Freedom tier 1

Mystery Play of Elche, Performance Works

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Origin Year

Currently States 1475

Some seventeenth century accounts claimed thirteenth century origins for the play; modern scholarship has abandoned that claim for lack of evidence and agrees only on the latter half of the fifteenth century, without settling on one specific year, so 1475 here stands for that broader, agreed-upon range rather than a documented founding date.

Source Mystery Play of Elche (Wikipedia), Wikipedia contributors tier 3

Mystical union with God (fana), Beliefs & Restrictions

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Status Within the Tradition

Currently States Genuinely disputed within the tradition

According To Sunni

Alexander Knysh's Islamic Mysticism: A Short History (Brill, 2000) traces how Sunni jurists came to treat claims of mystical union differently depending on their formulation. Reading the Sufi treatise tradition and the biographical and juristic sources on al-Hallaj's trial, Knysh shows that the sober account associated with al-Junayd, which frames union as the self's attributes being annihilated in God while distinction from God is maintained, was accepted, while ecstatic utterances read as claiming identity with God were not; al-Hallaj was executed at Baghdad in 922 on that reading of his own words. The line between the two readings is not fixed by any single ruling and has been argued by successive generations of jurists and mystics ever since, which is why the doctrinal status is contested rather than settled.

Source Islamic Mysticism: A Short History, Alexander Knysh tier 1

Mystical union with God (fana), Beliefs & Restrictions

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Status Within the Tradition

Currently States Formally condemned by this tradition

According To Sunni

Alexander Knysh's Islamic Mysticism: A Short History (Brill, 2000) traces how Sunni jurists came to treat claims of mystical union differently depending on their formulation. Reading the Sufi treatise tradition and the biographical and juristic sources on al-Hallaj's trial, Knysh shows that the sober account associated with al-Junayd, which frames union as the self's attributes being annihilated in God while distinction from God is maintained, was accepted, while ecstatic utterances read as claiming identity with God were not; al-Hallaj was executed at Baghdad in 922 on that reading of his own words. The line between the two readings is not fixed by any single ruling and has been argued by successive generations of jurists and mystics ever since, which is why the doctrinal status is contested rather than settled.

Source Islamic Mysticism: A Short History, Alexander Knysh tier 1

Myth and ritual, Doctrines

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Standing as a Comparative Category

Currently States Largely abandoned as a comparative category

The Encyclopedia of Religion (Macmillan Reference, 2005) records that the Myth and Ritual school held that myth is always the spoken correlate of a rite. That strong claim is no longer held by the field, because too many myths have no rite behind them and too many rites no myth to support a universal correlation; a weaker claim survives instead, that where the two occur together they often interlock, and that neither is simply the explanation of the other.

Source Encyclopedia of Religion, Mircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.) tier 1

Myth and ritual, Doctrines

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Status Within the Tradition

Currently States Genuinely disputed within the tradition

The Encyclopedia of Religion (Macmillan Reference, 2005) records that the classical myth-ritual theory, that myth and ritual form one original unit with myth as the ritual's spoken counterpart, was influential through much of the twentieth century on the strength of a limited set of ancient Near Eastern cases; later scholarship, testing the theory against a wider range of traditions, has challenged it as overgeneralized from that limited evidence base.

Source Encyclopedia of Religion, Mircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.) tier 1

N, Alphabet Letters

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Chaldean Letter Value

Currently States 5

According To Modern planetary numerology, the scheme called Chaldean

The values recorded here follow Cheiro's Book of Numbers (Cheiro, the pen name of William John Warner, published by Herbert Jenkins, London, 1926), the most widely reproduced version of the so-called Chaldean numerology table. Cheiro's own text names no ancient Chaldean source for the letter values it assigns, and comparing it against other published numerology tables from the same and later periods finds no agreement between them on several letters; no Mesopotamian or Chaldean text has ever been produced that contains a comparable letter-number correspondence. That comparison is why historians of the modern occult treat "Chaldean" as a nineteenth and twentieth century marketing label rather than a checkable lineage claim. The value recorded here is Cheiro's published reading, not a settled fact.

Source Cheiro's Book of Numbers, Cheiro (William John Warner) tier 3

Nagarjuna, Deities

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Origin of the Name

Currently States Nagarjuna joins naga, serpent, with arjuna, a name also carried by the arjuna tree.

The naga element is traditionally explained by the legend that he retrieved the Perfection of Wisdom sutras from the serpent king's realm, but this is the hagiographic account handed down about him rather than a settled philological derivation of the name, and it is presented here as tradition, not as established etymology.

Source The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Robert E. Buswell Jr. and Donald S. Lopez Jr. tier 1

Nahas (Na) ነ, Alphabet Letters

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Meaning in the Attesting Source

Currently States Why the script was vocalised in the fourth century CE, after centuries of writing consonants alone, is argued and not settled

According To The Ge'ez script

The World's Writing Systems (Peter T. Daniels and William Bright, eds., Oxford University Press, 1996) reviews the Aksumite inscriptions that first show Ge'ez written with vocalisation, a fourth-century CE innovation that is not in dispute, and canvasses three explanations for why it happened then: an internal development inside the Aksumite royal chancery seeking a more precise script for administration; a response to the newly Christian court's need for scripture translated and taught with unambiguous vowels after Aksum's conversion under King Ezana; and influence carried by vocalised Indian scripts reaching the Aksumite court through Red Sea trade contact. Comparing the timing, the epigraphic evidence and the trade record for each explanation, the volume's contributors find none conclusive, since Aksum's fourth-century contacts touched all three at once; the dating of the change is settled, its cause is not.

Source The World's Writing Systems, Peter T. Daniels and William Bright (eds.) tier 1

Nahj al-Balagha, Other Writings

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Attributed Author / Compiler

Currently States Attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib; compiled by al-Sharif al-Radi

The compiler gave no transmission chains. Some Sunni scholars from Ibn Khallikan onward questioned the attribution to Ali; Shia scholarship and some modern studies trace much of the material to earlier sources, leaving individual pieces of uncertain origin.

Source An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism, Moojan Momen tier 1

Nahual, Mythical Creatures

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Contested or Appropriated Modern Use

Currently States The word nagual entered wide English language popular use through Carlos Castaneda's bestselling and later discredited Don Juan books of the 1960s and 1970s, which built an invented shamanic system around the term. Anthropologists specializing in Mesoamerica have long distinguished Castaneda's literary construction from the documented Nahua and wider Mesoamerican belief this entry describes, and the popular and the ethnographic senses of the word are not the same thing.

Nahual, Mythical Creatures

Standing Scholarly debate

Concerns Lineage

Currently States Scholars disagree on how sharply to separate the tonal, a fixed animal co-essence every person is said to carry from birth, from the nahual proper, an animal form a sorcerer actively assumes; some treat them as one continuous belief and others as two related but distinct ideas that colonial sources already blurred together.