Divinity Atlas

Sacred Correspondences
Denominations

Parsi Zoroastrianism

Also Known As Parsis · Parsi Short form of Parsi Zoroastrianism.
Zoroastrianism

Citation Formats

General Reference

APA Style

BibTeX

The community of Zoroastrians descended from Persians who, after the Arab conquest of Iran, migrated over the following centuries to western India, chiefly Gujarat, to practice their faith in freedom, where they became known as Parsis, meaning Persians. They preserve the ancient religion of the prophet Zarathushtra: the worship of Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, the cosmic struggle between good and evil, the reverence of fire as the symbol of divine truth tended in fire temples, and the ethic of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. In India they adopted the local language and some customs while guarding their rituals, priesthood, and purity laws, and they follow the Shahenshahi calendar. Small in number but historically prosperous and influential, especially in Mumbai, the Parsis differ from the Irani Zoroastrians mainly in calendar, certain customs, and their long Indian setting, while sharing one ancient faith.

Facts
Organisation
Governance
Priestly office passing by descent 1
The priesthood is hereditary, restricted to men of priestly families (the athornan lineages).
Governance
Lay boards or trusts govern, alongside the priesthood 1
Lay anjumans and panchayats hold the property and appoint the priests
Governance
No central authority 1
The Bombay Parsi Punchayet is the largest
Ordination
Restricted to men 1
Ordination
Office passes by descent 1
The priesthood (mobed) is restricted to men born into the athornan priestly families.
Relation to the State
Privileged Never Established 3
India has never established Zoroastrianism, but Parsi Zoroastrians hold a privileged legal role of their own: the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936, enacted by the Imperial Legislative Council of British India and still in force, governs marriage, divorce, maintenance and custody exclusively for the Parsi community through its own Parsi Chief Matrimonial Courts, a community-specific personal law recognised by the state without making Zoroastrianism India's established religion.
Status
Status Today
Living tradition, practised today 1
Reach
Adherents Today
57,264 5
Adherents Today
A national count and not a global one 5
Adherents Today
The Parsis are the larger part but not the whole of the world Zoroastrian population 5
History
Separation or Divergence
Contact with Iran resumed in the fifteenth century through the Rivayat correspondence 1
Separation or Divergence
No doctrinal separation from the Zoroastrians of Iran 1
Separation or Divergence
The Parsis are the descendants of migrants to Gujarat and differ chiefly in calendar and social organisation 1
Practice
Liturgical Language
Avestan 1
Practice StatusSourced to the subject's own account
Parsi religious texts and history are documented and studied academically, but the living Parsi community in India and Pakistan generally does not accept converts, and entry to fire temples, along with full ritual participation, is traditionally restricted to those born into Parsi families. 4
Trajectory
Membership Over Time
The Parsi population of India had fallen to 57,264 at the 2011 Census of India, roughly half its 1941 level, a national figure that does not cover Zoroastrians living outside India. 5
Membership Over TimeSourced to the subject's own account
The Parsi population of India was 114,890 at the 1941 Census of India, the historic peak before decades of steady decline driven by very low fertility. 7
Membership Figure As OfSourced to the subject's own account
1941-01-01 7
Membership Figure As Of
2011-01-01 5
Basis of the Membership Figure
National Census 5
Origins
Place of Origin
Sanjan and the Gujarat coast; later Bombay 1
Founder
No founder. 1
Belief
Defining Doctrinal Position
Ahura Mazda opposed by a destructive principle, made real through good thought, word and deed 2
Giving
Standing Giving Expectation
Parsi religious life is chiefly supported through historic endowments rather than an ongoing due on individual members. The Bombay Parsi Punchayet, the community's central trust body, administers its charitable work through a system of named endowment funds; its Seth Kobad Rustomji Noble Kathi Fund, for example, was established with a corpus donation to pay in perpetuity for the sandalwood offerings burned at Parsi fire temples, its purpose and donor named on the trust's own page. No fixed percentage or membership tithe is asked of an ordinary Parsi in return. 6
How the Expectation Is Enforced
Customary Norm 6
Disputed
Origin Period
700 to 1000 CE 1
John R. Hinnells's The Zoroastrian Diaspora: Religion and Migration, Oxford University Press, 2005, traces what is known of the Parsi migration to the Qissa-i Sanjan, a Persian narrative poem composed in the sixteenth century that recounts events it presents as several centuries older. Hinnells's source-critical method treats that gap between composition and claimed event as the central problem: because no contemporary, independent record corroborates the migration, and the poem itself is the earliest surviving account, historians working from it alone have proposed arrival dates in Gujarat ranging from the eighth century to the tenth, and nothing outside the poem narrows that range further.
Learn More
A Migration, and the Story Told About It

The Parsis are the Zoroastrians of India, descended from those who left Iran after the Arab conquest, and their communal identity rests on a migration narrative that is also their principal historical problem.

The story is told in the Qissa-i Sanjan. A group of Zoroastrians sails from Iran, lands in Gujarat, and is granted asylum by a local ruler on conditions, that they explain their religion, adopt the local language, that their women wear the local dress, that weddings be held after dark, and that they lay down their arms. The best-known episode has the ruler send a vessel of milk filled to the brim, meaning that the land is full, and the Zoroastrian priest stir sugar into it without spilling any, meaning that his people will sweeten it without displacing anyone.

It is a very good story, and it was composed at least six hundred years after the events it describes. Its historical reliability is genuinely disputed among scholars, and the landing is dated variously to 716, 765 or 936. This atlas treats it as origin-legend rather than as chronicle, which is the standard scholarly position and not a fringe one.

What is solid is the outcome. A Zoroastrian community established itself in Gujarat, kept its priesthood, its fire temples and its purity law, adopted Gujarati and much local custom, and later moved in large numbers to Bombay under British rule, where it became prosperous out of all proportion to its size.

The conditions attached to the grant of asylum, whatever their historicity, describe accurately what the community in fact did: it explained itself, took the local language, and gave up the option of being anything other than a guest.

Calendars, Conversion, and Who May Enter

Two disputes have defined Parsi communal life, and both are about boundaries.

The first is the calendar. In the 1720s an Iranian priest visiting India found that the Iranian and Indian reckonings had diverged by a month, and in 1745 a faction at Surat adopted the Iranian one. The community has had competing calendars ever since: Shahanshahi, the inherited Indian reckoning that most Parsis follow; Kadmi, the Iranian-aligned reckoning adopted in 1745; and Fasli, a seasonally corrected calendar created in 1906. Festivals therefore fall on different days for different Zoroastrians, which for a religion built around a ritual calendar is not a small matter.

The second is conversion and intermarriage, and it is existential. The dominant Parsi position has been that one is born a Zoroastrian and cannot become one, and that a Parsi woman who marries outside the community loses her religious standing and her children are not Parsi, while the same is not said of a man. A ruling in 1909 restricted the term Parsi to those with Zoroastrian parents and formal initiation, excluding converts. Indian constitutional law has since moved against strict patrilineal tests, and litigation over a woman's access to fire temples and to the funerary grounds has reached the Supreme Court, which pressed the trustees concerned toward accommodation.

The Bombay Parsi Punchayet, founded in the 1670s, is the apex lay body: a charitable trust, one of Mumbai's largest private landlords with thousands of housing units, custodian of the Doongerwadi funerary grounds, and elected by the Parsi residents of the city. The arguments are conducted through it.

Where It Is Now

India recorded 57,264 Parsis at the 2011 census. In 1921 the figure was 101,778. The community has lost more than two-fifths of its number in ninety years, through emigration and a birth rate well below replacement, and this is the central fact of contemporary Parsi life rather than a background trend.

Global Zoroastrian figures are commonly given as 110,000 to 120,000, with perhaps 15,000 to 25,000 in Iran and around 22,000 in North America. Published estimates range far more widely than that, because they disagree about whether to count self-identification and converts, so the range reflects the conversion dispute rather than uncertainty about arithmetic.

Parsi prominence in modern India is genuinely disproportionate. In industry, law, the armed forces, music and philanthropy, a community of tens of thousands has supplied names known to hundreds of millions. That prominence is sometimes cited within the community as a reason the decline is bearable, and by others as evidence that it is not.

The demographic argument and the conversion argument are the same argument. A community that does not accept converts, does not count the children of women who marry out, and has a fertility rate around one, has a determinate future. Some Parsis regard opening the boundary as the only way to survive; others regard the boundary as the thing being preserved, and hold that a community admitting anyone has not survived but been replaced. Neither side disputes the numbers.

Funerary practice has had to change as well: exposure of the dead in the towers depends on vulture populations, which collapsed across South Asia from the 1990s.

Cross-Tradition Connections

Associated With

Zoroastrians fleeing Iran landed at Sanjan on the Gujarat coast and became the Parsi community.

The dakhmas of Mumbai remain in use among Parsis, whose community argues over solar concentrators, aviaries, burial and cremation as the ecological base for vulture exposure has collapsed.

Gujarat, Regions

The Parsi community formed in Gujarat from Zoroastrians who left Iran.

Zoroastrians who left Iran after the conquest settled in Gujarat and became the Parsi community, keeping the temple fire cult of this period.

This source names Parsi directly: "of India population table for the Parsi community: 114,890 in 1941, 91,266 in 1971, 69,601 in 2001, 57,264 in 2011, each figure footnoted to its own Census of India year."

Source Zoroastrianism in India (Wikipedia)Wikipedia contributors

Belongs to Tradition

Branch Of

Holds Element

The first of the five Gathas, held to be the words of Zarathushtra himself, and recited in the daily office.

Source The Hymns of ZoroasterM. L. West
Ashem Vohu, Mantras

Recited constantly, before and after prayers, on waking and on washing.

The bundle of rods held by the priest during the high liturgy, now made of metal where it was once cut from a tree.

The Denkard, the ninth century compendium of Zoroastrian belief and practice, is scripture held by this community.

Source A History of ZoroastrianismMary Boyce

Preserved in a dialect already archaic when the rest of the Avesta was composed, and transmitted by priests who learn the sound before they learn the sense.

The plant is pounded and its juice consecrated in the Yasna, the central liturgy, which cannot be performed without it.

The woollen cord is tied and untied at the five divisions of the day with the prayer that accompanies it, and its seventy two threads are counted against the chapters of the Yasna.

The Parsi priesthood is hereditary in the male line of priestly families, and the shortage of candidates from those families is now the central practical problem of the community.

The Qissa-i Sanjan, the traditional account of the Zoroastrian migration from Iran to Gujarat, is this community's own foundational scripture of origin.

Source Qissa-i SanjanBahman Kaikobad (attributed)
Sandalwood, Incense

Sandalwood is the offering laid on the fire by worshippers at a fire temple, and its sale at the door is part of the temple's economy as well as its worship.

The white cotton shirt is put on at the navjote and worn under the clothes for life, its small pocket at the neck standing for the store of good deeds.

The Parsi community continues exposure at its own towers in Mumbai, where the collapse of the vulture population has made the practice a live argument inside the community, so the Yazd towers are a disused parallel rather than a shared site.

The fire carried from Iran and installed in Gujarat is the oldest continuously burning fire of the Parsi community and the highest grade of consecrated fire it maintains.

The most important of the formulas, recited at the tying of the sacred cord and at the junctures of the day.

Objects and Practices of This Tradition

Source Encyclopedia of ReligionMircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.)
Ahura Mazda, Doctrines

The one supreme, wholly good creator God, the Wise Lord, is worshipped by this community as by all Zoroastrians.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)
Source Encyclopedia of ReligionMircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.)

The hostile, destructive spirit, the origin of evil and disorder, is affirmed in this community's cosmic dualism.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)
Asha, Doctrines

Truth, righteousness and the right ordering of the cosmos, opposed to the Lie, is the fundamental Zoroastrian principle held by this community.

Source A History of ZoroastrianismMary Boyce

The Avesta, the collected sacred texts of Zoroastrianism in the Avestan language, is scripture held by this community as by all Zoroastrians.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)

The Bundahishn, the Zoroastrian account of creation and cosmic history, is scripture held by this community.

Source The Bundahishn: The Zoroastrian Book of CreationDomenico Agostini and Samuel Thrope

The Denkard, the ninth century compendium of Zoroastrian belief and practice, is scripture held by this community.

Source A History of ZoroastrianismMary Boyce
Source Encyclopedia of ReligionMircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.)
Druj, Doctrines

The Lie, falsehood and disorder, the moral and cosmic opposite of Asha, is Zoroastrian doctrine held by this community.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)

The final renovation of the world, when evil is defeated and creation restored to perfection, is Zoroastrian eschatology held by this community.

Source The Bundahishn: The Zoroastrian Book of CreationDomenico Agostini and Samuel Thrope

The Gathas, the hymns attributed to Zarathushtra himself, are the oldest and most sacred layer of scripture held by this community.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)

The threefold ethical maxim at the heart of Zoroastrian practice is held by this community as the way of taking the side of Asha.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)
Source Encyclopedia of ReligionMircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.)

The Khordeh Avesta, the book of common prayer drawn from the Avesta, is scripture used in this community's daily devotion.

Source A History of ZoroastrianismMary Boyce
Khvarenah, Doctrines

The divine glory resting on a legitimate ruler, departing from one who does wrong, is Zoroastrian and Persian doctrine held by this community.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)

Parsis keep the equinox as Jamshedi Navroz, distinct from the New Year of their own Shahenshahi calendar, which has drifted to August; the day is marked with prayers in the fire temple, the haft-sin table and family visiting.

The Qissa-i Sanjan, the traditional account of the Zoroastrian migration from Iran to Gujarat, is this community's own foundational scripture of origin.

Source Qissa-i SanjanBahman Kaikobad (attributed)

Why this is disputed. Whether a person may convert into the faith, and whether children of interfaith marriages may be considered Zoroastrian, has long been disputed among Parsis, historically the more restrictive of the two communities.

Consecrated by Parsi fire temple priests and processed to by the Parsi community in traditional dress, a communally embraced devotional monument to the tradition's own founder prophet rather than a secular or purely commemorative civic statue.

Source Encyclopedia of ReligionMircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.)

The six Bounteous Immortals through whom Ahura Mazda creates and sustains the world are venerated in this community.

Source A History of ZoroastrianismMary Boyce

The bridge of judgement every soul crosses after death, broad for the righteous and narrow as a blade for the wicked, is held by this community.

Source The Bundahishn: The Zoroastrian Book of CreationDomenico Agostini and Samuel Thrope
Source Encyclopedia of ReligionMircea Eliade (ed.); Lindsay Jones (ed., 2nd ed.)

The pre-existent guardian spirit of every being, especially the righteous dead, is honoured in this community.

Source A History of ZoroastrianismMary Boyce

The oldest continuously burning fire of the Indian Zoroastrians, brought from Iran with the migration.

The Vendidad, the priestly code addressing purity law, is scripture held by this community.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)

The Yasna, the central liturgical collection including the Gathas, is scripture used in this community's worship.

Source The AvestaAnonymous (Zoroastrian tradition)

Related To

Sources
1. The Zoroastrian Diaspora: Religion and Migration
John R. Hinnells, Oxford University Press, 2005View the Source
2. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices
Mary Boyce, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1979View the Source
3. Encyclopaedia Britannica (online academic reference)
Encyclopaedia Britannica editors, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 2024View the Source
4. Parsis (Wikipedia)
Wikipedia contributors, Wikipedia
5. Census of India 2011
Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, 2011Religion tables
Quote, Religion tables
57,264 Parsis recorded in India in 2011, against 101,778 in 1921.
View the Source
6. Kathi Fund (The Bombay Parsi Punchayet)
The Bombay Parsi PunchayetView the Source
7. Zoroastrianism in India (Wikipedia)
Wikipedia contributors, WikipediaView the Source
A History of Zoroastrianism
Mary Boyce, Brill, 1989View the Source
The Hymns of Zoroaster
M. L. West, I.B. Tauris, 2010View the Source
Qissa-i Sanjan
Bahman Kaikobad (attributed)The migration narrative
Quote, The migration narrative
Composed at least six centuries after the events described. Treated as origin-legend, and the landing dated variously to 716, 765 or 936.
Community

0 members

Visit This Community

Comments (0)
No comments yet. Be the first to share a thought.
Reader Challenges (0 open reader challenges)
No disputes yet. Spotted an error or a better source? Open the first one.

View At A Past Year

The atlas records no dated fact of its own for this entry, so there is no other year to choose.