Islam

Ash'ari kalam, the dominant school of Sunni theology, holds occasionalism as a defense of unlimited divine power, developed influentially by Al-Ghazali.

This edge names tradition membership rather than a contested claim in its own right. Rachel's Tomb's own tradition fact already records it as Jewish and Islamic, in full.

One building, divided since 1994, entered separately as a synagogue and as a mosque under military control.

The Damascus killings were carried out by a local Muslim mob, joined by some irregular fighters, and scholarship including Rogan's holds the Ottoman provincial governor, himself Muslim, responsible for failing to prevent or halt the violence; an international commission of inquiry and the Ottoman government's own later executions of implicated officials treated it as a grave crime rather than a legitimate religious act. This edge names the perpetrating mob's and the failing officials' religious identity as the historical sources give it; it is not an assertion that Islam as a religion caused the massacre, and mainstream Ottoman Islamic authority itself punished those responsible.

The island's Muslim Moor trading community was the target of the rioting and the property destruction that ran through the summer of 1915.

Muslim residents of Ahmedabad were the overwhelming majority of those killed and dispossessed in the riots, per Kumar's study and the Reddy Commission's own findings.

Muslim residents of Ahmedabad and other Gujarat cities and towns were the overwhelming majority of those killed, displaced and dispossessed in the violence.

The formative centuries of Islamic law, theology and science fall under Abbasid rule, and Baghdad was their working centre.

Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school predominates, with a Shia Hazara minority; about 99% Muslim overall.

The tradition's liturgical, scriptural or ancestral language belongs to this family.

The largest affiliation at about 57 per cent, making Albania the only European country with a Muslim majority; Tirana has been the world headquarters of the Bektashi order since 1925.

About 99 per cent Sunni Maliki, with a distinct Ibadi community among the Mozabite Berbers of the Mzab valley.

Founded the Mouridiyya, one of the great Sufi orders of West Africa, teaching a pacifist path of work and devotion under colonial rule.

A tradition held by peoples inside this grouping. The grouping is not itself a religious body.

The Amman Message, endorsed in the city in July 2005, set out three points on the boundaries of Islam.

Arab traders carried Islam to the Malabar and Konkan coasts centuries before any Muslim army reached southern India.

Islam arose among the Arabs and made Arabic its liturgical language.

The Archaeological Survey of India's collections include Islamic era inscriptions.

About 96 per cent of the population, with a Shia majority inherited from Safavid rule and a substantial Sunni minority.

The state religion, with a Shia majority among citizens under a Sunni ruling family, a configuration central to the politics of 2011 and after.

About 91 per cent of the population, Sunni of the Hanafi school, spread historically through Sufi teachers rather than conquest.

About 7 per cent of the population, of Moroccan and Turkish origin and concentrated in Brussels and the industrial cities; a state funded recognised faith since 1974.

Eastern Bengal has a Muslim majority shaped by centuries of Sufi preaching.

Muslim personal law was codified separately under the same administration.

A large Muslim community alongside Vodun and Christianity.

About 51 per cent of the population, present since Ottoman rule from 1463, with Naqshbandi and Mevlevi tekkes and a distinctive urban endowment culture.

Roughly a tenth of the population, comprising ethnic Turks and Bulgarian speaking Pomaks, subjected to a forced renaming campaign in the 1980s.

About 63 per cent of the population, mostly Sunni Maliki with strong Tijaniyya influence, under severe pressure from jihadist violence since 2015.

A small minority, concentrated in Bujumbura and the trading towns along the historic caravan routes.

The Mingana Collection includes the two parchment leaves of a Quran radiocarbon dated in 2015 to between 568 and 645 CE.

About 20 per cent of the population, concentrated in the north where Fulani emirates established after the Sokoto jihad still structure authority.

The Seleka coalition that launched the war was drawn overwhelmingly from the country's Muslim minority.

Bukhara and Samarkand became centres of Islamic learning after the Arab conquests.

Classical Arabic is the canon language of Islam, the language of the Qur'an and of the five daily prayers regardless of a worshipper's native tongue.

The Turkish Cypriot community is Sunni Muslim, and the Hala Sultan Tekke at Larnaca is a major regional shrine.

The house holds the parchments recovered from the roof of the Great Mosque of Sana'a, including the palimpsest that is the only substantial witness to a Quranic text beside the standard one.

The Quran retells the destruction of the cities of the plain in the account of Lut, naming their ruins as a sign for those who pass by.

The Bahmani kingdom and the Deccan sultanates brought Persianate Islam to the plateau.

Alongside Timbuktu, Djenne was a major center of Islamic scholarship, home to Quranic schools, in the Mali and later Songhai empires.

East Africa carries a long Swahili coast history of Islam carried by Indian Ocean trade.

About 90% Sunni Muslim.

The Egyptian state body responsible for administering waqf, Islamic religious endowments, and overseeing the country's mosques.

About 32 to 34% Muslim, mostly Sunni.

Reads the classical schools of Islamic fiqh against the conditions of Muslims living as minorities in Europe.

The Ottoman sultan caliph proclaimed jihad in November 1914, and the war's outcome ended in the abolition of the caliphate in 1924.

Became capital of the Songhai Empire after the ruler Kossoi converted to Islam around 1010 and undertook the hajj.

About 11 per cent of the population, among the Georgian speaking community of Adjara and the Azeri community of Kvemo Kartli.

About 18 per cent of the population, concentrated in the northern regions.

Green carries a settled positive association in Islam, tied to paradise and to the Prophet, and appears widely on flags, mosque furnishing and bindings. The European medieval reading of green as unstable and unlucky ran in the opposite direction over the same centuries.

The West African packet holds a written Quranic verse or other words of power, so the object belongs to West African Islamic practice before it belongs to anything in Louisiana, where the word later became a general term for a conjure charm.

Her running between Safa and Marwa is retraced by every pilgrim on the hajj as the sa'i.

Al-Andalus ruled much of the peninsula for centuries and made Cordoba a centre of learning.

About 14 to 15% Muslim, one of the largest Muslim populations in the world by absolute number.

Muslim merchant communities ran from Mogadishu to Malacca by the thirteenth century, and conversion proceeded through trade and marriage rather than armies.

About 87% Muslim, overwhelmingly Sunni; the world's largest Muslim population.

About 90 to 95% Twelver Shia Muslim, the historical heartland of Zoroastrianism before Islam.

About 55 to 60% Shia Muslim and 35 to 40% Sunni Muslim.

The group claims Islamic legitimacy for itself; mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship rejects the claim.

About 18% of the population is Muslim.

About 42 per cent of the population, concentrated in the northern regions.

About 95 to 97% Sunni Muslim.

The demonstration that was hijacked into rioting began as a Muslim protest against the newspaper article.

Kaduna's Muslim community, whose youths responded to the Christian protest with violence, and whose adoption of Sharia criminal law was the proposal at issue.

About 70 per cent of the population, Sunni of the Hanafi school, spread through Sufi networks including the Yasawi order at Turkistan.

Its walled old town grew into one of Central Asia's most complete surviving assemblages of Islamic mosques, madrasas and mausolea.

The earliest surviving Quran manuscripts are written in Kufic.

Islam is the religion of the state under the 1962 constitution, with a Sunni majority and a Shia minority of roughly a quarter to a third among citizens.

The Kyrgyz have been Muslim for centuries, and the Islamic vocabulary of the language came through Chagatai from Arabic and Persian.

Lebanon's Sunni and Shia Muslim communities were principal parties to the war, but the war was fought across, not by, one tradition.

No census since 1932; widely used estimates place the population at roughly 60 to 65% Muslim, split closely between Sunni and Shia.

About 97 per cent Sunni Maliki; the Sanusiyya Sufi order led resistance to Italian rule and supplied the monarchy of 1951 to 1969.

A long established minority on the northwest coast, arriving through Comorian and Indian Ocean trade.

About 14 per cent at the 2018 census, adopted through the nineteenth century lake trade and strongest among the Yao of the lakeshore and south.

Islam is the religion of the Federation under Article 3, and state Sharia courts hold jurisdiction over Muslims in family law and religious offences.

About 90 to 95% Sunni Muslim, shaped historically by Sufi brotherhoods including the Tijaniyya and Qadiriyya.

The rulers were Muslim, and Mansa Musa's pilgrimage of 1324 brought scholars, mosque building and Maliki law into the empire.

Islam has been established in the Manding world for centuries, and the epic carries a layer of Muslim reference over older material.

She is the only woman named in the Quran, and is honoured in Islam as the mother of the prophet Isa.

About 17 per cent, largely descended from Gujarati traders and Bihari indentured labourers; the Jummah Mosque in Port Louis is the community's historic centre.

Brought to the sea's entire southern and eastern rim by the seventh and eighth century Arab conquests

Almost the entire population follows Sunni Islam of the Maliki school, with the king holding the title Commander of the Faithful and the Tijaniyya and Boutchichiya Sufi orders prominent.

About one fifth of the population, concentrated on the northern coast, where Indian Ocean trade brought Islam centuries before Portuguese rule.

The official religious administrative body overseeing Islamic affairs in Uzbekistan.

The same bowl carries Quranic inscriptions cut into it long after it was made, so one object in this museum sits inside two traditions in sequence rather than one.

About 5 per cent of the population, chiefly of Turkish, Moroccan and Surinamese origin.

The Nation of Islam's Temple Number Seven in Harlem was Malcolm X's base.

Roughly 45 to 50% Muslim, concentrated in the north.

About 33 per cent of the population, almost entirely within the ethnic Albanian and Turkish communities, with Bektashi tekkes including Arabati Baba at Tetovo.

The declaration speaks with esteem of Muslims, who adore the one God, and urges that past quarrels be set aside.

A majority of citizens follow Ibadi Islam, the only country where it predominates, alongside Sunni and Shia Omani minorities.

The sultans held the guardianship of Mecca and Medina from 1517 and claimed the caliphate, which the Turkish assembly abolished in 1924.

About 96% Muslim, roughly 85 to 90% Sunni and 10 to 15% Shia.

About 97 to 98% Sunni Muslim.

Muslim communities, chiefly in Punjab and Bengal, were both targets and, in the same reciprocal violence, perpetrators against Hindu and Sikh neighbors during Partition, and Pakistan was created as the partition's Muslim-majority successor state.

Muslim pehlwans and their pious disciplines are central to the art's history

A courtly art with devotional strands, from Miraj imagery to Sufi poetry illustration

About 6 per cent of the population, present since the fourteenth century and concentrated in western Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago.

Islamic law permits up to four wives with the condition of just treatment.

Islam is the majority tradition west of the partition border in Punjab.

Sunni Islam of a Hanbali and Wahhabi influenced tradition is the state religion, and the state funds the Qatar Faculty of Islamic Studies.

The caliphate that followed Muhammad's death in 632, under which the Quran received its authoritative written form.

The Quran tells the drowning of Pharaoh, and the sea has carried African pilgrims to Jeddah for the hajj ever since.

The Rohingya are Sunni Muslim with a strong Sufi devotional layer.

A Muslim Spiritual Assembly with a state-appointed mufti was established at Orenburg in 1788, making the empire an arbiter of Islamic orthodoxy.

A minority of about two per cent, which grew after 1994 partly because mosques were widely seen to have sheltered people during the genocide.

State religion; about 93% Sunni and 5 to 6% Shia, home to Mecca and Medina.

The tradition's liturgical, scriptural or ancestral language belongs to this family.

About 96 per cent of the population, organised through the Tijaniyya centred on Tivaouane and Kaolack and the Mouridiyya centred on Touba.

The Mughal Empire's ruling dynasty and state administration were Islamic; several of the conflict's flashpoints, including both Gurus' executions, are read in the traditional and much of the general literature as acts of religious enforcement by that Islamic state authority against the Sikh faith.

Many, not all, lineages are explicitly Islamic; spiritual framing varies by school

About 15 per cent of the population, chiefly the Malay community served by mosques administered under the Islamic Religious Council.

State religion of the ruling and scholarly elite, most systematically under Askia Muhammad.

A minority of roughly six per cent, mainly in the towns and along the border with Sudan.

Mosques, madrasas and Islamic courts were closed across Central Asia and the Caucasus, and practice continued largely outside the registered structures.

Predominantly Sunni, organised through the Khatmiyya and Ansar Sufi brotherhoods, whose leading families are also political dynasties.

About 14 per cent of the population, the highest share of any country in the western hemisphere, drawn from both Indian and Javanese indentureship.

About 5 per cent of the population, largely of Balkan and Turkish origin.

Before 2011, roughly 74% Sunni Muslim with an 11% Alawite minority.

Governs in the name of its own interpretation of Islamic law.

Roughly 35 per cent nationally and almost the entire population of Zanzibar, an inheritance of Swahili coastal Islam and Omani rule.

Muslim residents, businesses and places of worship were the systematic target of the January 1993 violence in particular, the Srikrishna Commission's own central finding.

Muslim worshippers gathered for Ramadan dawn prayers were the massacre's target, killed inside the Ibrahimi Mosque hall of the shared shrine.

The demolished structure was a mosque, and Muslim communities and property across India bore the heaviest losses of the nationwide riots that followed.

The amendment turns on a legal definition of Muslim identity rather than affirming Islam itself.

Mosques in the northwest were closed and in places destroyed.

The Quran gives the account of the garden and the fall, and uses the same word of it that it uses of the paradise to come.

The Quran names the Sabians beside Jews and Christians, which is why the identification carried legal weight under Muslim rule.

A 2005 ruling in which scholars from Sunni, Shia and Ibadi Islam recognised one another's schools as valid.

Islam affirms the conception of Jesus without a father while rejecting the sonship that Christian doctrine draws from it.

The wider religion within which this is an intra-Islamic dispute over practice, not a persecution of Islam by an outside actor; both the demolishing Wahhabi movement and the mourning Shia and Sunni communities are Muslim.

A state museum in a former palace, not a mosque. Its Chamber of the Sacred Relics keeps objects venerated in Islam that the Ottoman sultans gathered as guardians of the holy cities.

About 5 per cent of the population; the Muharram observance known locally as Hosay has been shared across religious lines since the nineteenth century.

About 99% Sunni Muslim; the Great Mosque of Kairouan is considered a foundational center of Islamic learning in North Africa.

About 96 to 99% Muslim, Sunni Hanafi majority with a substantial Alevi minority.

The tradition's liturgical, scriptural or ancestral language belongs to this family.

About 14 per cent of the population, present since nineteenth century trade contacts with the Swahili coast.

The dynasty gave Islam its first monumental public form, in Arabic administration, imageless coinage and the Dome of the Rock.

The official religion; Abu Dhabi hosted the 2019 Document on Human Fraternity and opened the Abrahamic Family House in 2023.

Deoband and the Nadwatul Ulama at Lucknow shaped modern South Asian Islam.

About 96% Sunni Muslim of the Hanafi school.

Almost the entire population, divided between a Shafii Sunni majority and Zaydi Shia communities in the northern highlands.

Akbar and the great majority of the Din-i-Ilahi's courtier following were formally Muslim; the order layered a personal discipleship and comparative ethic on top of that base rather than replacing it wholesale.

Friday (Yawm al-Jumu'ah) is the day of congregational prayer in Islam; the noon Jumu'ah prayer at the mosque is obligatory for Muslim men.

The agitation was organized by Muslim religious parties under an explicitly Islamic banner, demanding Ahmadis be declared outside the fold of Islam by law; this edge connects that organizing identity to the riots without asserting the violence as Islam's own position, since the Munir Report itself found no consensus even among the testifying ulema on the theological question the agitation claimed to settle.

Authored and signed exclusively by Muslim scholars, clerics and intellectuals.

Sirhindi wrote and taught as a Sunni Sufi scholar within Islam.

Islamic scholars carried alchemy from Alexandria to Europe and gave it much of its vocabulary, alkali, alembic and elixir, through figures such as Jabir ibn Hayyan; it was pursued privately by learned men and never held any standing in Islamic law or worship.

Derived from the tradition recorded on the mantra, Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

The Andalusi codex is the western form of the Quran manuscript, written in Maghribi script.

Islam holds belief in angels an article of faith, created of light and without power to disobey, with Jibril bringing the revelation and Munkar and Nakir questioning the dead. The jinn are a separate order made of smokeless fire and, unlike angels, may be good or evil.

Observed across Islam, with sharply different emphasis in Sunni and Shia practice.

Balim Sultan led and reorganized a Sufi order within Islam.

Muslim usage turns on bismillah before an act and mashallah at the sight of something good.

Alevi tradition within the broader Islamic world; Alevis themselves differ on the relation of their path to Islam.

The Seleka coalition that launched the war in December 2012 was drawn overwhelmingly from the country's Muslim minority in the northeast, and Muslim civilians were the group the later anti-balaka reprisals targeted. This edge connects the Seleka's composition and the reprisal violence's targets to Islam as the sources describe them; it is not a claim that Islam as a faith caused the rebellion, which Lado and Lombard trace to political rather than religious causes.

Islam has no ordination and no sacramental class. An imam leads prayer and may be any adult who knows the words; the scholars who interpret law are trained and influential but appointed by no rite.

The da'i is an Ismaili missionary office within Islam, descending from the Fatimid dawa.

Islam has no fallen angels: Iblis and the shayatin are jinn, made of smokeless fire and possessed of will, so folk and magical traditions treat them as commandable or contractable, while orthodox scholars confine the response to Quranic recitation and ruqya.

The Sunni schools of law are methods of legal reasoning rather than churches. A Muslim may follow one and pray behind an imam of another, and the schools have no governing bodies or membership rolls.

Dervish is the broader, more public-facing word for a Sufi order's members and mendicants, covering both the formally bound disciple and the itinerant ascetic living outside any settled lodge.

The Sufi ritual of remembrance of God, developed in distinctive forms across Sufi orders.

Prominent local commanders including Ma Hualong held standing within the Sufi menhuan networks active among Gansu's Hui communities, and the revolt is commonly summarized in general reference works as a Muslim uprising against Qing rule. This edge connects that religious organization and identity to the revolt; it is not a claim the fighting was waged over Islamic doctrine, since Chu's specialist study traces the revolt's actual outbreak to Han-Hui communal friction and provincial governance failure rather than to a declared religious cause.

His 1986 title rested the standing of the Saudi ruler on responsibility for Mecca and Medina rather than on sovereignty over a territory.

The same history records the northern, Khartoum-based side of the war as identified with Sudan's Muslim Arab population and its post-independence Arabization and Islamization program, the grievance credited with helping trigger the southern rebellion. This edge documents that side's own communal identity as the record gives it; it is not an assertion that Islam or any Muslim body directed the war as a religious campaign.

Islamic astronomers named most of the bright stars still in use, Aldebaran, Betelgeuse, Altair and Deneb, and refined their positions, while the lunar mansions served the calendar and prayer times; judicial astrology drawn from the stars was contested by the jurists.

Jibril is the angel of the revelation in the Qur'an.

The General Presidency is the Saudi state body charged with the care of the Grand Mosque at Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque at Medina, and its remit is defined in religious terms rather than as heritage administration.

Geomancy is an Islamic art, ilm al-raml, the science of the sand, developed in medieval North Africa and the Arab world with its sixteen figures and twelve houses and carried into Europe from Arabic sources; the jurists generally condemned divination while the practice persisted widely.

The devotional literature of the South Asian Nizari Ismaili communities, taught in South Asian languages rather than in Arabic.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

The teaching traced to Haji Bektash Veli sits within Islam, in the heterodox Sufi current the Bektashi Order carried forward.

Hasan-i Sabbah led a Nizari Ismaili Shia state within Islam.

Its own record calls it the Twelver Shia seminary.

Ibn Battuta was a Muslim jurist and traveler whose Rihla records pilgrimage and travel across the medieval Islamic world.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

Imran ibn Hittan was a Kharijite, an early sect of Islam holding that armed rebellion against an unjust ruler is owed to God.

A mosque dedicated in 1957, among the first purpose built in the United States.

An international humanitarian and development charity working on an Islamic basis of charitable giving, including zakat and qurbani programmes, per the charity's own description.

The same study documents an Islamist religious framing, notably that of Hamas, invoked by some Palestinian factions alongside the conflict's primary character as a national and territorial dispute. This edge records that documented religious dimension; it is not a claim that Islam as a tradition directed the conflict.

He is named as a weaver of a Muslim community of Benares, and Muslim tradition carries its own account of his death.

A khalifa is a disciple a sheikh has authorized to teach, initiate new members and lead a branch lodge in his name, an office of delegated spiritual authority distinct from political succession.

The khamsa is worn in popular Muslim practice across the Maghreb.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

The mahmal travelled with the pilgrim caravan as a mark of the state that sent it.

The Yan Tatsine organized and understood themselves as a religious community following Muhammadu Marwa's own claimed Islamic authority, in explicit and public rupture with the mainstream Sunni clergy of northern Nigeria, who denounced him as a heretic. This edge records that self-organization and that rejection by mainstream Islamic authority; it is not an assertion that Islam as a whole, or northern Nigeria's Muslim community generally, bears responsibility for the violence the risings produced.

Its own record calls it the elementary Quran school of the Islamic world.

The Java-based Laskar Jihad militia, sent by the thousands from 2000, fought explicitly as a jihadist force on the Muslim side, and local Muslim fighters were the conflict's other organized side.

A West and North African Islamic category, formed in the Maghreb and the Sahara.

Worked as a court astrologer within the early Abbasid Islamic state, though he was himself Jewish by background.

Khalid wrote and taught as a Sunni Sufi shaykh within Islam.

Prominent in Muslim wedding customs across South Asia and, under related names, the Middle East and North Africa.

Mika'il is named in the Qur'an, in Surat al-Baqara.

Mina belongs to Islam, its own tradition field; it fills each year with the tent city of the Hajj.

The rebellion opened under the organizational and religious banner of the Khilafat movement, the pan-Islamic campaign to preserve the Ottoman caliphate. Panikkar and Wood disagree on how much weight that religious mobilization carries against the land-tenure grievance against Hindu landlords both also document, and this connects the rebellion to that religious organizing rather than settling what caused the communal violence its later months included.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

The Muslim Board of Uzbekistan is the country's official Islamic authority and keeps the Samarkand Kufic Quran as a religious trust rather than as a state antiquity.

Recorded within the wider Islamic-era Arabic folkloric and cosmographical corpus, alongside jinn-lore proper.

The sung devotional poetry of the Alevi and Bektashi traditions, in Turkish and performed within the cem.

Its own text: "The Quran tells the same account and names the landing place as al-Judi."

The mobs that carried out the killings, abductions and forced conversions were organized in the tense weeks following the Muslim League's Direct Action Day campaign for a separate Muslim state. Das reads the underlying drivers as a contest over political power and land, with religious identity supplying the organizing line rather than doctrine supplying the cause.

Abjad reckoning assigns numerical values to the Arabic letters and has been used for chronograms, for the mysterious letters that open certain suras, and in the lettrist speculation of the Sufi and Hurufi traditions; the jurists have been unfriendly to divinatory use.

The Padri movement's reform program was drawn from the Wahhabi current within Islam that its clerics encountered on pilgrimage, and the war's opening phase was fought explicitly over how Islam should be practiced in Minangkabau society.

Du Wenxiu took the title Sultan Suleiman in 1856 and governed his Pingnan Guo state at Dali under an explicitly Islamic administration, and general reference treatments commonly describe the rising as a Muslim uprising against Qing rule. This edge records that self-declared religious title and administration; it is not the whole picture, since Atwill's revisionist scholarship argues Yunnan's multiethnic grievances against corrupt provincial rule, not religion alone, drove a movement that also drew substantial Han and Bai support.

Muslim pehlwans have been central to the art throughout its history, carrying their own pious disciplines.

The tradition produced devotional imagery, above all the celebrated Miraj paintings of the Prophet's night ascent.

Its own record calls it the Indonesian Islamic boarding school.

Muslim militias from Poso Regency's own communities, later reinforced by outside fighters including Laskar Jihad, were one of the two organized parties fighting across all three episodes of the conflict, per van Klinken's field research and Human Rights Watch's investigation. This edge records that community's part in a two-sided war exactly as the sources give it; it does not assign the conflict's origin or greater share of blame to either side.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

Its own record calls it the court of a single judge applying fiqh.

The qutb is the summit of the classical hierarchy of saints, the single figure of the age believed to anchor the spiritual order of creation beneath ranked companies of lesser saints.

Islamic art made geometry the principal ornament of the mosque, figural imagery being avoided in worship, producing interlaced star patterns and muqarnas whose construction from compass and straightedge is worked out to remarkable depth.

Devotional food custom (Ashura/Muharram nazri) and hadith-based dress restriction, not a doctrinal requirement.

The same account documents the Khartoum government side as pursuing an explicitly Islamist program, including the 1983 sharia decree that reignited the conflict, and identifies northern Sudan's political leadership with Sudan's Muslim Arab population. This edge records that side's own documented identity; it is not an assertion that Islam directed the war.

A constituent service of the Alevi and Bektashi cem.

The Islamic form is named khutbah rather than sermon and carries its own required standing within the Friday prayer.

Clergy or specialist role within Islam.

Many lineages are explicitly Islamic, training adab and inner discipline and sometimes Sufi practice alongside technique; the honest description is plural by lineage.

The jihad was fought as an act of Islamic reform. Usman dan Fodio spent two decades teaching against Hausa rulers he judged to have mixed Islam with pre-Islamic custom and to govern unjustly, and the caliphate his forces founded was organized explicitly as an Islamic state under sharia. This marks the jihad's own religious cause and organization, not a claim that Islam as such directed every act of the campaigns that followed.